Essay about History - 1475 Words

Part I: Fill in the Blanks Fill in the blanks to complete the following sentences. Revolutionary France a. Burdened by debt from the Seven Years’ War and French support for the American Revolution, King Louis XVI needed to raise taxes, so he agreed to convene the , which met in 1789 at Versailles. Led by the —those outside the aristocracy or church— a new was declared on June 17, 1789. Its members swore, in the Tennis Court Oath, to create a new for France. b. Nervous about the new National Constituent Assembly, the king gathered troops near Versailles and in early July of 1789. The citizens of , anxious about the†¦show more content†¦These actions convinced the , in February of 1791, to denounce the Civil Constitution and the . The National Constituent Assembly replaced the traditional provinces with , founded uniform courts, and established the system of measurement. f. The Constitution of 1791, adopted by the National Constituent Assembly, established a constitutional that limited many people, including all women, from voting. The new Legislative Assembly declared war on in 1792. The war initially went poorly, and revolutionaries grew more radical. On August 10, 1792, the people of Paris invaded the palace, forcing the king and queen to flee to the , which held them comfortably but did not allow them any political power. g. During the second revolution, the new radical government of Paris, the executed hundreds of criminals, calling them counterrevolutionaries, during the Massacres. This government forced the Legislative Assembly to call the , charged with writing a democratic constitution. Its first action was to declare France a and to abolish the monarchy. The was led by a group of Jacobins called the , allied withShow Mo reRelatedHistory And History : History1540 Words   |  7 PagesAmrozia Shahram History 1301. P09 Essay History is integral part of our lives and historians play an important role to preserve history. Historians are present in every society. They have been around probably throughout the history of humanity. Their work however has become more methodical and systematic now. Modern day historians spend a lot of time searching for the truth from various sources of past information. These days so much information is available and this information is interpretedRead MoreHistory And Its Impact On History808 Words   |  4 PagesHistory is a course that contains a lot of fundamental information. It is a science that studies the past of the human race and the human civilizations, assists us to comprehend the present, so we have a better vision for the future. The History seeks to reconstitute the past event. For the reason, history has its objectives, methods. All the information of history is related to the time and space because the consideration of an historical event requires placing it i n time and in a given space. ByRead MoreHistory3115 Words   |  13 Pagesstudy history? There is no doubt that the primary purpose of schooling is to prepare students to function effectively in the world, and thereby to assist society to function effectively as well. We study the past in school not because students need to know a collection of old facts, but because history helps them understand how the world works and how human beings behave. Knowledge of the past is required for understanding present realities. When people share some common knowledge of history, theyRead MoreHistory And Its Impact On History1556 Words   |  7 Pagespeak at a current history lesson taught in a classroom, the common outsider will likely find nothing wrong with its content or presentation. 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Primary Sources Of Primary Research - 1231 Words

1. Primary research, or research using primary sources, is first hand data and / or resources. In other words researchers are collecting data themselves. Primary sources are also examples of primary research; for example, when writing an essay on the Roman Empire, a diary or painting of that time is a primary source (also called the original source or original evidence) it has not been altered and is the closest real source information to the topic. Secondary research on the other hand involves the comments written about a primary source; including interpretations, discussions or other studies by other researchers. The researcher does not have access to the primary source used in secondary research and relies solely on information interpreted or analyzed by another person. For example, if an interview is being conducted and the researcher records informant comments, the researcher is using primary research. But if someone else tells the researcher what the interviewer has said, secondary research is being used. Examples of secondary research or secondary sources include; articles, scientific journals, essays or academic books. Primary research is the closest form of information to the topic or idea being studied. The information is not changed by other researchers, and is a true account that can be easily interpreted by the researcher. 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They each have purpose and can be used as a marketing research template when conducting research. Both techniques are equipped with tools that can be used to guide a researcher through the research process. If these tools are properly adhered to, the research process can be seamless and quite effective.Read MoreDoing Research On The Internet1154 Words   |  5 PagesDoing Research on the Internet With the information age has come the attitude of â€Å"if you can think of it, you can find it on the Internet.† It’s difficult to argue the sentiment when you can find out interesting facts such as who has the longest hair in the world, how fast the Earth rotates around its axis, or how much India’s population grew in 2012. Is It Online? Though it may be the easiest place to begin researching, there are times when the Internet doesn’t hold the answer. 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The data given from a primary source has not been translated into information by another person. Primary sources are the source of the data given. Many books of law are primary sources. A court transcript would be a primary source for an appealed case. JaneRead More Marketing Research Tools Essay example1410 Words   |  6 PagesMarketing Research Tools Before launching or expanding a business venture, there needs to be an understanding of the industry, its competitors, and its customers. Market research is vital in assisting companies in the decision-making process and their marketing direction. Data from marketing research is important because it provides companies with ways to identify opportunities, identify market potential, minimize chances of loss, devise effective marketing strategies, gauge customer satisfaction

Slumdog Millionaire Cultural Issues Essay Example For Students

Slumdog Millionaire Cultural Issues Essay | Slumdog Millionaire| || 02 102010| Slumdog Millionaire. Dir. Danny Boyle. Co-Dir: India. Loveleen Tandan. Perf. Dev Patel, Freida Pinto, Madhur Mittal, Anil Kapoor Ayush, Mahesh Khedekar, Tanay Chheda, Rubina Ali, Tanvi Ganesh Lonkar, Azharuddin Mohammed Ismail, Ashutosh Lobo Gajiwala Distributor, United Kingdom: Pathe Pictures 2008 United States/Canada: Fox Searchlight PicturesWarner Bros. Pictures 2008 Australia: Icon Film Distrubution 2009 â€Å"Slumdog Millionaire†, a film set in the Twenty-first century of modern day India, is a great case for the Cultural and Economic Globalization theory. This movie has at its core a western influence and a quest for freedom through economic empowerment (capitalism), utilizing the love of western culture and modern technology. The film has as its central character a young Indian man name Jamal Malik, who was born into misfortune, which is to say he was born into absolute poverty. He was an orphan, and he was from the slums of Mumbai. He grew up with his older brother, Salim, who was both his guardian/protector and antagonist; and having a relationship since childhood with another orphaned child, a girl named Latika. Jamal, had no education and worked in a call center serving tea. However, his resourcefulness and street smarts helped him to adapt to his ever challenging environment and navigate his way through his very difficult life. According to India’s traditional (albeit disappearing) caste system, he is expected to remain in abject poverty until death. This young Indian mans life was forever altered by western culture and technology, through the popular Indian version of the American Television show â€Å"Who Wants to be a Millionaire†. With the whole nation watching, he is just one question away from winning a staggering 20 million rupees. But when the show breaks for the night, police arrest him on suspicion of cheating. Throughout the film, the young man is constantly exposed directly or indirectly to western culture (American and European Tourists, Western Currency, even European Literature â€Å"The Three Musketeers†) which brought with them valuable life lessons, and provided the answers to many of the questions which he had to answer correctly, to win the game show challenge and become a millionaire. The police inspector shows the videotape and after each question, Jamal recalls parts of his childhood with his brother Salim, his crush for Latika and their fight to survive on the streets to justify each correct answer, guided by his common sense and past experience, and prove his innocence. Ironically, but consistent with globalization the winning question which brought the young Jamal his fortune and changed his financial standing in society. The question from western literature about the â€Å"Three Musketeers†, penned by French writer Alexander Dumas. High Context Communication The film depicts cultural bias but the message that is communicated is high context communication because it is understood between both parties. India’s characteristics reveal the social practices of the cultural systems. Because their communication takes place in a long term relationship between two people who are often able to interpret even the slightest gesture or briefest comment. The message does not need to be stated explicitly because it is carried in the shared understanding about the relationships. Jamal was an office jockey or coffee runner, yet he worked in a call center, which handled calls from all over the world. The young man Jamal, because of his social-economic standing, was thought to have cheated when he answered the questions correctly. It was believed that this lower class Indian (â€Å"A Chia-wallah Slumdog†), should not have been able to answer such questions because they were not relevant to his world. He was from the streets or slums of Mumbai. The questions could only have been answered correctly by a better educated more widely exposed (middle or upper-class) Indian. .u8a9d477b88133e169ff05517650ef6a3 , .u8a9d477b88133e169ff05517650ef6a3 .postImageUrl , .u8a9d477b88133e169ff05517650ef6a3 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u8a9d477b88133e169ff05517650ef6a3 , .u8a9d477b88133e169ff05517650ef6a3:hover , .u8a9d477b88133e169ff05517650ef6a3:visited , .u8a9d477b88133e169ff05517650ef6a3:active { border:0!important; } .u8a9d477b88133e169ff05517650ef6a3 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u8a9d477b88133e169ff05517650ef6a3 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u8a9d477b88133e169ff05517650ef6a3:active , .u8a9d477b88133e169ff05517650ef6a3:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u8a9d477b88133e169ff05517650ef6a3 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u8a9d477b88133e169ff05517650ef6a3 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u8a9d477b88133e169ff05517650ef6a3 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u8a9d477b88133e169ff05517650ef6a3 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u8a9d477b88133e169ff05517650ef6a3:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u8a9d477b88133e169ff05517650ef6a3 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u8a9d477b88133e169ff05517650ef6a3 .u8a9d477b88133e169ff05517650ef6a3-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u8a9d477b88133e169ff05517650ef6a3:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Essay on Martha Stewart Living : Advertisement Analysis EssayThis was apparent in the way the game show host taunted and mistreated the young contestant, humiliating him and talking to him in a very inferior and condescending manner. However, in a very specific setting: the angry police inspector, when he is violently interrogating Jamal, whom he suspects of cheating on the â€Å"Who Wants to be a Millionaire† show states, â€Å"What can a slumdog possibly know? † At this point in the movie, the inspector is the antagonist and certainly not a character with whom we are expected to agree with. By the end of the movie, the inspector has changed his attitude toward Jamal completely. He believes him, sets him free and roots for him to win. For example, as mentioned earlier, the caste system is one which is very prejudicial and oppressive to a certain class of Indian people. Collectivism The challenges which Jamal faced, in some ways is familiar to most of us, but in other ways it is very far from our reality. The children in this movie were family, although they were abandoned and left alone to provide for themselves, they were apart of a bigger family which was the slumdog community. When Jamal and his brother went to school the teacher taught them about the Three Musketeer’s which symbolize collectivism because they represent â€Å"all for one and one for all†. Jamal invited Latika to come and stay with him and Salim because he recognizes that she was a slumdog and she was alone like them, and all slumdogs stick together. When Jamal won the game, he just didn’t win it for him self, he won it for the whole slumdog community. He showed everyone that has a higher rank in the caste system that is doesn’t matter where you come from, you can still gain knowledge. Cultural Patterns They suffered great abuses because they were a part of the lower caste. Everyone who was higher in the caste system had the right to abuse you, simply because you were a slumdog. In the movie the police constantly abused and tramatised the slumdogs. Because the Indian police can not imagine that a kid from the slums could have the intelligence to answer the questions correctly. And why should he? His entire background is one of hard work, no education and nightmarish conditions that are unbearably and sadly true for so many of India’s children at the lowest caste level. If you were a pretty girl from the slumdog community you could be used to entertain men for money (prostitution, belly-dancing, singing, etc. ). In the Indian culture, generally the age threshold for womanhood is much younger than it is in the western culture. In the movie they washed their clothes and played in the same water because as a slumdog it didn’t matter to them. Cultural Biases The cultural bias in this movie was when the Hindis went to fight the Muslims. When this occurred, the cultural riot killed Jamal’s mother. This is what left a lot of children homeless and without parents. In the beginning the studio audience had a bad view of Jamal because he was a slumdog, but as he began to answer questions correctly the audience changed their view of him. The questions that were ask on the game show were cultural bias because they were a part of the western culture, for instance when the host ask him about what was on the face of the hundred dollar bill, he learned it from a blind boy that he knew. The only reason the host asked him those questions was because he thought that Jamal shouldn’t know the answer because he was a slumdog from India.

The Negative Impact of Rap Music on Todays Youth free essay sample

Bambina, Cool Here, and Grandmaster Flash. Do to the enormous popularity of Run DMS; rap had crossed over on the music charts and radio stations all over the world (Toms, 2006, Pl). Rap music was about having fun, being able to express what youth were feeling and a way to keep youth out of trouble. There are many youth that find rap music an exceptional source of entertainment. According to Mackerel, the lyrics in rap music can leave one relaxed or with vibrant beats. However, rap music has changed dramatically in the past 30 years. Some would say that rap music is the common entertainment to blame for violence in todays youth, because of the contents in its lyrics; degrading videos to women; and the over exposed feuding between rap artists. The glorification of living a thug life, and all it is encompassed, became the means by which all rap artists were judged. We will write a custom essay sample on The Negative Impact of Rap Music on Todays Youth or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page By the sasss rap artists like, D] Jazzy Jeff and The Fresh Prince, Curtis Blow and Biz Marker were no longer accepted in the rap music (Toms, 2006, Pl). Those rap artists were considered as roll models, because those rap artists relayed positive messages to their listeners (Toms, 2006, Pl).The majority of todays rap culture involves a lot of explicit material and negatives (Mackerel). According to Mackerel, This new form of rap music glorifies big money, degrading of women, drugs, alcohol, and guns. Many rap artist lyrics are explicit and degrading to women, while rap artist might be expressing what they have seen or the everyday struggles in life. In regard, rap artists are sending out a negative message to youth. Among the many youth and negative lyrics in rap music, rap artists remain an influence on youth education.Many youth are starting to come up without a decent education, cause youth are dropping out of school to pursue a rap careers (Toms, 2006, pa). Youth want to become rap artist, so they can live a thug lifestyle, in order to have the lavish women, expensive cars, and money. Communities, generation and legacies are suffering because of the negative visualization that producers and record companies are promoting to rap artist, along with BET and MAT broadcasting their videos (Toms, 2006, pa). With the exceptions, there are extremely a good number Of children that value, the importance of a good education.Multiple Grammar award winner, Lauren Hill f The Fugues was an A student during her high school tenure. Roseanne Shanty, a rap artist from the asss, went on to become a doctor, and Reckon, of the Www-Tang Clan, became a master chef! However, that stats on children who drop out, sell drugs or end up in prison, is grossly disproportionate to the number of success stories out there (Toms, 2006, pa). There is a dire need of more rap artist like Lauren Hill, Roseanne Shanty, and Reckon that are supporters of education.If more rap artists would stress the importance of a good education, fewer children would drop out of school, leaving them with he pressures of society. According to Toms, the record company executives arent interested in educating children. They are interested in sales and profit, (2006). Most importantly rap music, should be serve as an educational tool for youth in America. Cheerier stated that, this is not the first time that rebellious music has been blamed for societys ills. From Elvis to Columbine, the songs of music obsessed youth have often been clammed for anti-social behavior, (2003).With the negativity of music, music have played a roll in two separate incidents that have involved youth acting out, because f the explicit lyrics they are hearing. the first incident was a 16 year old junior high school student in Moses Lake, who shot his algebra teacher, after watching a video of a rock band. The second incident involved two teenage Columbine students, that went on a shooting spree after listening to Marylyn Masons music, that left twelve teachers and students dead and twenty one others injured in the attack (Miscarriage).The lyrics and videos in rap music focus on sexism, money, and drugs. A concern many have is the way rap artist express themselves about women and the glorification they have in omen. What people should take into account is the fact that we now live in a visual era and kids are affected by visual images more than anything else (Tom s, 2006, pa). In videos, rap artist parade half naked women around wearing barley anything, fabulous cars, and expensive jewelry. However, many young female youth want to be like the women in the videos.According to a study that was done by researcher Ralph J Decremented, PhD, of Emory Universitys Rollins Schools of Public Health, On 522 black teens between the ages of 14 to 18 that are exposed to rap videos at least 14 hours week were far more likely to practice destructive behaviors. Over the course of one year, the teens were three times more likely to hit a teacher, over 2. 5 times more likely to get arrested, twice as likely have multiple sexual partners, and 1. 5 times to contact a sexually transmitted disease, use drugs, or drink alcohol (Cheerier, 2003).Susan Buttress who was not involved in Decremented study, states that her committee, Paps on public education, is currently updating its 2001 policy statement that found 75% of music videos involved sexual imagery, and more than half invol ved violence, usually against omen (Cheerier, 2003). With the overwhelming movement of rap music there are many youth looking up to rap artist as Role models. Youth are even starting to have the gangster look, like baggy pants, backward hats, chains and jewelry.It appears anyone can make plenty of money in the rap industry, as so often projected, they are going to take a shot at it. Moreover, if their attempts to get a record deal never materialize, they may decide to take it to the next level by becoming a drug dealer or by getting into the drug game in order to live the lavish life style that is so often projected in music ideas. What they do not realize is that todays rap stars might be tomorrows welfare recipient or prison inmate. It has happened to numerous rap artist artists, who were highly regarded at one time (Toms, 2005, pa).However, there might be some children that are inspiring to be like rap artist, then there are children that want to be like them, to have the expensive cars and money, but with out the violence that som e rap artists face. Rap artists rivalries are one of the main streams today in rap music. Competition between rap artist and record companies have been feuding for many years. Competition between rival recording companies is natural, but when it came to the premier rap labels, Death Row Labels and Bad Boy Entertainment was one of the biggest rivals in rap music.The rivalry went from nasty to vicious to deadly in a short time. Despite many denials and explanations issued by both companies, the antagonism between the labels Was least partly fueled by their larger than life founders, Sue Knight of Death Row Labels and Puff Combs of Bad Boy Entertainment (Bruno, 2005). Two of the best rappers in the industry, Tuba Shaker of Death Row Labels and Christopher Wallace, as now as Notorious Big, of Bad Boy Entertainment were friends despite their recording label rival. In 1990 rap music popularity grew; by then the violent acts had started to turn real. Tales of beatings and public humiliations surfaced. Rap artist, Tuba Shaker and Notorious Big started to slander one another. Eventually the feud escalated from a battle of words to a bloody war (Bruno, 2005). Tuba Shaker was shot on several occasions, but on September 7, 1996, Tuba Shaker was leaving the Mike Tyson-Bourbons Seldom prize fight and was fatally shot and killed. Six months after the death of Tuba Shaker, Christopher Wallace was shot and killed (Bruno, 2006). There are many people who think of rap artist as thugs, gang bangers, drug dealers, or just committing violent crimes. Since rap is more listen to and performed by African Americans there is this connection that individuals make. Many might believe that African Americans who listen to rap music are black gangsters and promiscuous (Miscarriage, 2005). There have been many deaths of rap artists that have revolved around the lyrics and feuds rap artist have against one another. Even though rap music has sparked violence and crime, there is a positive side to rap music. Rap music has received plenty of criticism for often containing explicit lyrics, alcohol use, drugs, and sexism.Many people believe that rap music have been a negative influence on youth, due to the explicit lyrics, alcohol use, drugs, and sexism. However, there is a positive side to rap music. Many believe that music is therapeutic and a great source of entertainment (Mackerel, 2005). Not only does rap music have a positive, but other music like classical music, pop music, and gospel USIA is positive. According to Mackerel, Classical music is indeed a source of therapy and entertainment. Its instrumental rhythm can leave one either relaxed with yielding notes or thrilled with vibrant beats.Beethoven s Fifth symphony has upbeat notes that entertain all those who appreciate this genus of music. Gospel music is also therapeutic to many. Many look to this type of music when they feel as if they hit rock bottom and need guidance. The uplifting hopeful and positive words ease their fears and worries. Pop music and Reggae music are also types that are very entertaining. These types of music mostly have up beat rhythms that make people who listen to it want to dance. Dancing is a form of entertainment; therefore Pop and Reggae music is entertaining (n. D. . Rap music have focused on social economics that had an impact on those who have lived and experience the hardship, violence or even crime in rap artists lives. Rap music should be about educating our youth to make the right choices in life, so todays youth will not have to face the hardships of life. In an article by Toms, he state that, It would make a enormous difference if rap artist like 50 Cent or The Game, comes out and state that the industry in which rap music is about, the glamour and images of what rap artist have seen or even lived as a youth (2006).Rap artists should stress the level of education for youth, so children would stay in school and not drop out, if they want to pursue a music career. By hearing rap artists like 50 Cent and The Game, many children would be less likely to drop out of school, this will allow youth the opportunity to escape the hardships of life. In conclusion, rap music is not as it once was. The simple leisure of listening to rap music have changed to explicit lyrics, sexism, and violence.The negative lyric in rap music has had a destructive impact on todays youth; while women are continuously being exploited in rap videos; and rap artist are failing to be a positive role model for todays youth. With the glorification of living a thug life, has become the standards for which rap artists were judged. Along with the feuding between rap artists and record companies, its one of the main streams in todays in rap music. Rap music was one of the best forms of entertainment in the mid-1 asss that gave youth chance to express what they were feeling or, what they have seen. The Negative Impact of Rap Music on Todays Youth free essay sample Todays rap music has changed dramatically since the sasss. Rap music has become the most popular type of music in the U. S. Rap music can give people entertainment and can also tell a story in someones life. According to the American Heritage Dictionary, rap music is defined as, a style of music associated with urban street gangs and characterized by violent, tough talking, often misogynistic lyrics (Miffing, 2000). Rap music was formed In the mid-1970 among the youth In South Bronx and rap artists like, Africa Bambina, Cool Here, and Grandmaster Flash. Dot the enormous popularity of Run DIM: rap had crossed over on the music charts and radio stations all over the world (Toms, 2006, Pl). Rap music was about having fun, being able to express what youth were feeling and a way to keep youth out of trouble. There are many youth that find rap music an exceptional source of entertainment. We will write a custom essay sample on The Negative Impact of Rap Music on Todays Youth or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page According to Meagerly, the lyrics In rap music can leave one relaxed or with vibrant beats. However, rap music has changed dramatically In the past 30 years. Some would say that rap music Is the common entertainment to blame for lenience in todays youth, because of the contents in its lyrics; degrading videos to women; and the over exposed feuding between rap artists. The glorification of living a thug life, and all it is encompassed, became the means by which all rap artists were judged. By the sasss rap artists like, D] Jazzy Jeff and The Fresh Prince, Curtis Blow and Biz Marker were no longer accepted in the rap music (Toms, 2006, Pl). Those rap artists were considered as roll models, because those rap artists relayed positive messages to their listeners (Toms, 2006, Pl The majority of todays AP culture involves a lot of explicit material and negatives (Meagerly). According to Meagerly, This new form of rap music glorifies big money, degrading of women, drugs, alcohol, and guns. Many rap artist lyrics are explicit and degrading to women, while rap artist might be expressing what they have seen or the everyday struggles in life. In regard, rap artists are sending out a negative message to youth. Among the many youth and negative lyrics In rap music, rap artists remain an Influence on youth education. Many youth are starting to come up without a decent education, because out are dropping out of school to pursue a rap careers (Toms, 2006, up). Youth want to become rap artist, so they can live a thug lifestyle, in order to have the lavish women, expensive cars, and money. Communities, generation and legacies are suffering because of the negative visualization that producers and record companies are promoting to rap artist, along with BET and MAT broadcasting their videos (Toms, 2006, up). With the exceptions, there are extremely a good number of children that value, the importance off good education. Multiple Grammar award winner, Lauren Hill of The Fugues was an A student during her high school inure. Roseanne Shanty, a rap artist from the asss, went on to become a doctor, and Reawaken, of the Www-Tang Clan, became a master chef! However, that stats on children who drop out, sell drugs or end up In prison, is grossly disproportionate to more rap artist like Lauren Hill, Roseanne Shanty, and Reawaken that are supporters of education. If more rap artists would stress the importance off good education, fewer children would drop out of school, leaving them with the pressures of society. According to Toms, the record company executives arena interested in educating children. They are interested in sales and profit, (2006). Most importantly rap music, should be serve as an educational tool for youth in America. Cheerier stated that, this is not the first time that rebellious music has been blamed for societys ills. From Elvis to Columbine, the songs of music obsessed youth have often been clammed for anti-social behavior, (2003). With the negativity of music, music have played a roll in two separate incidents that have involved youth acting out, because of the explicit lyrics they are hearing. The first incident was a 16 year old junior high school student in Moses Lake, who shot his algebra teacher, after itching a video of a rock band. The second incident involved two teenage Columbine students, that went on a shooting spree after listening to Marylyn Masons music, that left twelve teachers and students dead and twenty one others injured in the attack (Meagerly). The lyrics and videos in rap music focus on sexism, money, and drugs. A concern many have is the way rap artist express themselves about women and the glorification they have in women. What people should take into account is the fact that we now live in a visual era and kids are affected by visual images more than anything else (Toms, 2006, up). In videos, rap artist parade half naked women around wearing barley anything, fabulous cars, and expensive Jewelry. However, many young female youth want to be like the women in the videos. According to a study that was done by researcher Ralph J Decremented, PhD, of Emory Universitys Rollins Schools of Public Health, On 522 black teens between the ages of 14 to 18 that are exposed to rap videos at least 14 hours a week were far more likely to practice destructive behaviors. Over the course of one year, the teens were three times more likely to hit a teacher, over 2. Times more likely to get arrested, twice as likely have multiple sexual partners, and 1. 5 times to contact a sexually transmitted disease, use drugs, or drink alcohol (Cheerier, 2003). Susan Buttress who was not involved in Decremented study, states that her committee, Paps on public education, is currently updating its 2001 policy statement that found 75% of music videos involved sexual imagery, and more than half involved violence, usually against women (Cheerier, 2003). With the overwhelming movement of rap music there are many youth looking up to rap artist as Role models. Youth are even starting to have the gangster look, like baggy pants, backward hats, chains and Jewelry. It appears anyone can make plenty of money in the rap industry, as so often projected, they are going to take a shot at it. Moreover, if their attempts to get a record deal never materialize, they may decide to take it to the next level by becoming a drug dealer or by getting into the drug game in order to live the lavish life style that is so often projected in music videos. What they do not realize is that todays rap stars might be tomorrows welfare recipient or prison inmate. It has happened to numerous rap artist artists, who were highly regarded at one time (Toms, 2005, up).However, there might be some children that are inspiring to be like rap artist, then there are children that want to be like them, to have the expensive cars and money, the main streams today in rap music. Competition between rap artist and record companies have been feuding for many years. Competition between rival recording companies is natural, but when it came to the premier rap labels, Death Row Labels and Bad Boy Entertainment was one of the biggest rivals in rap music. The rivalry went from nasty to vicious to deadly in a short time.Despite many denials and explanations issued by both companies, the antagonism between the labels was least partly fueled by their larger than life founders, Segue Knight of Death Row Labels and Puff Combs of Bad Boy Entertainment (Bruno, 2005). Two of the best rappers in the industry, Outpace Shaker of Death Row Labels and Christopher Wallace, as known as Notorious Big, of Bad Boy Entertainment were friends despite their recording label rival. In 1990 rap music popularity grew; by then the violent acts had started to turn real. Tales of beatings and public humiliations surfaced. Rap artist, Outpace Shaker ND Notorious Big started to slander one another. Eventually the feud escalated from a battle of words to a bloody war (Bruno, 2005). Outpace Shaker was shot on several occasions, but on September 7, 1996, Outpace Shaker was leaving the Mike Tyson-Bourbons Seldom prize fight and was fatally shot and killed. Six months after the death of Outpace Shaker, Christopher Wallace was shot and killed (Bruno, 2006).There are many people who think of rap artist as thugs, gang bangers, drug dealers, or Just committing violent crimes. Since rap is more listen to and performed by African Americans there is this connection that individuals make. Many might believe that African Americans who listen to rap music are black gangsters and promiscuous (Meagerly, 2005). There have been many deaths of rap artists that have revolved around the lyrics and feuds rap artist have against one another. Even though rap music has sparked violence and crime, there is a positive side to rap music. Rap music has received plenty of criticism for often containing explicit lyrics, alcohol use, drugs, and sexism. Many people believe that rap music have been a negative influence on youth, due to the explicit lyrics, alcohol use, drugs, and sexism. However, there is a positive side to rap music. Many believe that music is therapeutic and a great source of entertainment (Meagerly, 2005). Not only does rap music have a positive, but other music like classical music, pop music, and gospel music is positive. According to Meagerly, Classical music is indeed a source of therapy and entertainment. Its instrumental rhythm can leave one either relaxed with yielding notes or thrilled with vibrant beats. Beethovens Fifth symphony has upbeat notes that entertain all those who appreciate this genus of music. Gospel music is also therapeutic to many. Many look to this type of music when they feel as if they hit rock bottom and need guidance. The uplifting, hopeful and positive words ease their fears and worries.Pop music and Reggae music are also types that are very entertaining. These types of music mostly have up beat rhythms that make people who listen to it want to dance. Dancing is a form of entertainment; therefore Pop and Reggae music is entertaining (n.D. ). Rap music have focused on social economics that had an impact on those who have lived and experience the hardship, violence or even crime in rap artists lives. Rap music should be about educating our out to make the right choices in life, so todays youth will not have to face the hardships of life.In an article by Toms, he state that, It would make a enormous industry in which rap music is about, the glamour and images of what rap artist have seen or even lived as a youth (2006). Rap artists should stress the level of education for youth, so children would stay in school and not drop out, if they want to pursue a music career. By hearing rap artists like 50 Cent and The Game, many children would be less likely to drop out of school, this will allow youth the opportunity to escape the hardships of life. In conclusion, rap music is not as it once was.The simple pleasures of listening to rap music have changed to explicit lyrics, sexism, and violence. The negative lyric in rap music has had a destructive impact on todays youth; while women are continuously being exploited in rap videos; and rap artist are failing to be a positive role model for todays youth. With the glorification of living a thug life, has become the standards for which rap artists were Judged. Along with the feuding between rap artists and record companies, its one of the main streams in todays in rap music.

Vegetation Recovery Using Remote Sensing Image In Yellowstone National Park after the Fires in 1988

Vegetation Recovery Using Remote Sensing Image In Yellowstone National Park after the Fires in 1988 Literature Review The Connection between Vegetation Recovery and Burning Severity of Fires Before analyzing the images produced by means of remote sensing, it is necessary to analyze the aspects and criteria according to which the images can detect various patterns of vegetation recovery after the fire. Specifically, much research has been done on the analysis of connection between biodiversity and remote sensing techniques as well as other methods for types of recovery vegetation.Advertising We will write a custom term paper sample on Vegetation Recovery Using Remote Sensing Image In Yellowstone National Park after the Fires in 1988 specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More According to Kennedy, remote sensing contributes greatly to the analysis of vegetation cover and provides sufficient information about atmospheric chemistry (133). In particular, satellite remote sensing techniques can provide exhaustive data on the patterns and criteria n ecessary for analyzing sophisticated interactions and mechanisms connecting fire density, vegetation cover, atmospheric chemistry, and climate. The researcher has found that gas emitted into atmosphere as well as shifts occurred to the atmospheric ratio is possible to effectively detect with the help of remote sensing. However, the examination of such dependencies does not provide viable solutions to the analysis of vegetation recovery in relation to temporal scales. Still, there is a possibility to identify the nature of gasses emitted. More detailed information on this issue is provided by Turner et al. who have managed to provide sufficient justification to remote sensing images and how they can be used to identify various types of forests and vegetation (306). According to the researcher, â€Å"†¦recording numerous densities at different heights throughout the canopy and enables three-dimensional profiles of vegetation structure to be made† (Turner et al. 307). With the help of this data, it is possible to detect the potential for such techniques as mapping of sub-canopy layers and emergent tree species. A great contribution to the analysis of distribution patterns and habitat categorizations carried with the help of remote sensing techniques. This examination has been provided by Debinsky, Kindsher, and Jakubauskas (3281). The researchers have also applied to Landsat TM data analysis in order to evaluate various forest and meadow types in Yellowstone Park. Importantly, the studies also seek to define the relation between vegetations areas and animal species distribution which is quite essential because the foci of birds and animals can be the indicators of dense vegetation.Advertising Looking for term paper on geography? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Particular species can be affiliated to a particular vegetation pattern. Interestingly, the research conducted by Debinski et a l, reveals â€Å"large differences in species distribution patterns among remotely sensed meadow types† in different temporal dimensions (3283). The same concerns are considered by Gould (1861). White et al have also been more consistent and pertinent to our research considerations (125). In their studies, they emphasize that aside from vegetations patterns, there are also burning severity patterns resulted in different topographic vegetation. The patterns are received with the help of satellite data that show significant changes in physical characteristics of burnt areas. The researchers have discovered that it is necessary to be knowledgeable about electromagnetic energy. In this respect, they have also defined that â€Å"†¦more severely burned areas have less vegetation cover and different radiation budgets in post-fire years† (White et al.124). Such important deductions will be of great relevance to our research because different patterns of burning severity w ill assist in analyzing the patterns presented in Yellowstone National Park. With regard to the consideration presented above, it should be emphasized that the vegetation recovery change patterns largely depend on the burning severity of fire. This linkage is revealed through carbon dioxide density, biophysical characteristics of burnt areas, radiation and spectral analysis, and electromagnetic energy. Spectral Analysis with Regard to Vegetation Recovery Patterns A possibility to distinguish the changing patterns of vegetation recovery and burning severity cannot be solely relied because such factors as the process of spectral analysis and carbon dioxide density are crucial in providing an accurate and consistent examination of temporal characteristics of vegetation recovery. In this respect, it is necessary to analyze the connection between carbon dioxide emission, and how they relate to fires and vegetation patterns. It is also imperative to prove why remote sensing, spectral anal ysis and Landsat TM techniques are crucial in identifying the influences of fire on vegetation recovery.Advertising We will write a custom term paper sample on Vegetation Recovery Using Remote Sensing Image In Yellowstone National Park after the Fires in 1988 specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The research provided by Jakubauskas and Price offer a clear picture of the relations between biotic factors and spectral analysis of forests in the Park (1375). With the help of multiple regression models, the researchers have provided the correlation of digital spectral analysis and biotical factors. The results have revealed that â€Å"tree height and diameter combined to form an index of crown volume, which in turn combined with density for an index of canopy volume† (Jakubauskas and Price 1379). The scholars have also detected other crucial, though less significant, factors and dimensions of spectral analysis such as leaf area index a nd vegetation index. Although the research provided by Jakubauskas and Price is of great value for further examination, it can be supported by the studies analyzing vegetation dynamics with regard to temporal scales (1378). In particular, Shannon and Lawrence are more close to the analysis of vegetation recovery patterns in relation to temporal scale (551). The value of their research consists in presenting change vector analysis with help of 1985 and 1999 images. This analysis is â€Å"a rule-based change detection method that examines the angle and magnitude of change between dates in spectra space† (Shannon and Lawrence 551). The process of change detection has succeed in presenting the changes within herbaceous and shrub land vegetation. The spectral and change vector analyses have detected that â€Å"there was a decrease in grass lands and a relative increase in srublands† (Shannon and Lawrence 554). The presented research can greatly assist in the exploration of vegetation recovery patters of change in Yellowstone National Park. The above-presented research provides consistent information about pattern distributions, but it lacks information about fire factor and its impact on vegetation recovery and accuracy of the research. This gap can be complemented with the explorations provided by Turner, Hargrove, Gardiner, and Romme (731). In general, spectral analysis plays an important role in identifying the changing patterns of vegetation recovery. It is also significant in defining various species of vegetation and describing pattern distributions on a particular geographic area.Advertising Looking for term paper on geography? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Technical possibilities and Limitations of Remote Sensing Techniques Remote sensing approaches can differ with regard to various resolutions of remotely sensed images. In order to succeed in researching our objectives, the analysis of advantages and limitations of these techniques is crucial. The studies presented by Wright and Gallant (582), Asner (2), Cohen and Goward (535), and Murtaugh and Philips (99). All scholars provide a comprehensive evaluation of all limitations to using remote sensing tools. In order to critically assess the technical possibility of remote sensing techniques, Wright and Gallant have provided a historical background of previous researches dedicated to the efficiency assessment (582). The results show that â€Å"remote sensing is the moderate spatial and spectral resolution of multispectral instruments like TM sensor† (Wright and Gallant 584) Therefore, it will be difficult to distinguish forested upland and forested wetland in spectral terms. The a pplication of remote sensing techniques cannot be solely applied, but in combination with ancillary data. Due to the fact that carbon dioxide is considered to be the indicator of vegetation recovery and burning severity of fire, ancillary technique should also involve carbon mapping as well which will back up the date collected form remotely sensed images (Asner 2). Such devices are quite relevant and applicable to the temporal analysis of vegetation because carbon spectral patterns of change can also be the signifiers of vegetation recovery stage. In particular, carbon densities can be easily correlated with burning severities, and vegetation recovery, and species analysis. More importantly, the carbon analysis includes the acquisition of maps depicting types of forest, disturbance, and deforestation. Remote sensing techniques are also applicable to temporal analysis of vegetation patterns. In this regard, Murtaugh and Philips provide a bivariate binary model for evaluating the shi fts in land cover with the help of satellite images received at different times (99). Such classification is aimed at correlating random variables that are dependent on the pixel resolution. Importantly, the researchers have applied to Landsat imaging for pixel classification and its correlation with land cover changes. Cohen and Goward also emphasize the importance of using remote sensing to assess temporal and spatial characteristics of ecological environment (535). In the particular, they used date obtained from Landsat sensors for constructing biogeochemical cycles and for characterizing vegetation biophysical attributes with regard to biodiversity. The research find remote sensing valid and reliable for analyzing vegetation and land cover change. In contrast, Ravan and Roy consider it necessary to introduce Geographic information systems for the analysis of various vegetation patterns and obtaining relevant information (129). The combined approach is much more efficient in dete cting such characteristics as vegetation shape, size, patch density and porosity. The research results has revealed significant different between different zones of Madhav National Part of India (Ravan and Roy 130). The structural analysis has provided vegetation recovery also largely dependent of biomass distribution and species diversity. Arising from this research, remote sensing and GIS can be successfully applicable to the temporal analysis of vegetation providing more accurate information. Innes and Koch state that remote sensing is considered the most efficient tool in assessing vegetation, and other biophysical characteristics such as structural criteria of forest stands, the canopy type and the present of coarse woody debris (397). The researchers emphasize that it is possibly to rely solely on remote sensing when investigating the spatial and temporal characteristics of vegetations. Interesting discoveries are offered by Turner, Ollinger, and Kimball who also approve remot e sensing techniques for evaluating spatial characteristics of vegetation (574). In particular, the researchers resort to remote sensing tools and ecosystem modeling to study the terrestrial carbon cycling. Pursuant to remote sensing limitation, explain that this device is constantly upgrading and it is possible to select the appropriate resolution of images to analyze the reflectance properties of vegetation and assess biogeochemical processes controlling carbon transformation. In general, the majority of the above-described researchers prove that remote sensing is one of the most efficient instruments in conducting the assessment of vegetation recovery with regard to its temporal and spatial characteristics. Nevertheless, the analysis will be much more successful if to apply this technique together with GIS approach. Overall Recommendations and Conclusion The analysis of image obtained by remote sensing allows to detect various patterns of vegetation recovery with regard to tempor al characteristics. The Yellowstone National Park has been analyzed in three various time – 1989, 1999, and 2010. The image obtained from Landsat TM, ISODATA being an ancillary mechanism revealed that there significant changes in vegetation recovery patterns in relation to temporal characteristics. In addition, classification scheme of vegetation used to shrub land, herbaceous vegetation, sparse vegetation, and bare land has turned out to be flexible and relevant for the research. The presented research proves conducted by Jakubauska and Price (1375) The results have also show that vegetation recovery patterns are closely connected with burning severity of fire. Importantly, the spectral analysis and Landsat TM show biophysical characteristics of burnt areas. The evaluation has also succeeded in defining the changes of species allocation on the territory of Yellowstone National Park. The technical approach used for the data analysis still had some limitations. In particular, it was difficult information without geographic information system because some characteristics were impossible to detect, such carbon dioxide cycle. Nevertheless, the classification of species was successfully identified and carefully analyzed with regard to temporal characteristics. In future, we plan to investigate this area and other territories, but with another combination of techniques either to justify or disapprove the effectiveness of those as compared with the above presented ones. This area is quite wide and, therefore, there is much store for investigation. Asner, Gregory P. Tropical Forest Carbon Assessment: Integrating Satellite and Airborne Mapping Approaches. Environmental Research Letters 4 (2009):1-11 Cohen, Warren D., and Samuel N. Goward. Landsat’s Role in Ecological Applications of Remote Sensing. BioScience. 54.6 (2004): 535-545. Debinski, D. M. and Kindscher, K., and Mark Jakubauskas. A Remote Sensing and GIS-based model of habitats and biodiversity i n the Greater Yellowstone Ecosysyem. Journal of Remote Sensing. 20.17 (1999): 3281-3291. Gould, William. Remote Sensing of Vegetation, Plant Species Richness, and Regional Biodiversity Hotspots. Ecological Applications. 10.6 (2000): 1861-1870. Innes John L., and Barbara Koch. Forest Biodiversity and Its Assessment by Remote Sensing. Global Ecology and Biogeography Letters. 7.6 (1998): 397-419. Jakubauskas, Mark, and Kevin P. Price. Empirical Relationships between Structural and Spectral Factors of Yellowstone Lodgepole Pine Forests. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing. 63.12 (1997, December): 1375-1381 Kennedy, Pam. Biomass Burning Studies: The Use of Remote Sensing. Ecological Bulletins. 15 (1992): 133-148. Murtaugh, Paul A. and Donald L. Philips. Temporal Correlation of Classification in Remote Sensing. Journal of Agricultural, Biological, and Environmental Statistics. 3.1. (1999, March): 99-110 Ravan, Shirish, A., and P. S. Roy. Satellite Remote Sensing for Ecological Analysis of Forested Landscape. Plant Ecology. 131.2 (1997): 129-141; Savage, Shannon L., and Rick L. Lawrence. Vegetation Dynamics in Yellostone’s Northern Range: 1985 to 1999. Photogrammetric Engineering Remote Sensing. 76.5 (2010): 547-556. Turner, David P., Ollinger Scott V., and John S. Kimball. Integrating Remote Sensing and Ecosystem Process Models for Landscape- to Regional-Scale Analysis of the Carbon Cycle. BioScience. 54.6 (2004, June): 573-584. Turner, Monica G., Hargrove Willia W., Gardiner Robert H., and William H. Romme. Effects of fire on landscape heterogeneity in Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming. Journal of Vegetation Science. 5 (1994): 731-742. Turner, Woody, Spector Sasha, Gardiner Ned, Fladeland Matthew, Sterling Eleanor, and Mark Steininger. Remote Sensing for Biodiversity Science and Conservation. Trends in Ecology and Evolution. 18.6. (2003, June): 306-314 White, Joseph D., Ryan, Kevin C., Key, Carl C., and Steven W. Running. Remote Sensing of Fores t Fire Severity and Vegetation Recovery. International Journal of Wildland Fire. 6.1 (1996): 125-136. Wright, Christ and Alisa Gallant. Improved Wetland Remote Sensing in Yellowstone National Park Using Classification Trees to Combine TM imagery and Ancillary Environmental Data. Remote Sensing of Environment. 107 (2007): 582-605.

Simple Conjugations for the French Verb Réussir

Simple Conjugations for the French Verb Rà ©ussir T​he  French verb conjugation  of  rà ©ussir. Present Future Imperfect Present participle je russis russirai russissais russissant tu russis russiras russissais il russit russira russissait nous russissons russirons russissions vous russissez russirez russissiez ils russissent russiront russissaient Pass compos Auxiliary verb avoir Past participle russi Subjunctive Conditional Pass simple Imperfect subjunctive je russisse russirais russis russisse tu russisses russirais russis russisses il russisse russirait russit russt nous russissions russirions russmes russissions vous russissiez russiriez russtes russissiez ils russissent russiraient russirent russissent Imperative tu russis nous russissons vous russissez Verb conjugation patternRà ©ussir  is a  regular -IR verb

Equity and Debt Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Equity and Debt - Essay Example However, this is balanced by the requirements of the debt covenant to regularly service that debt; that is, the company regularly needs to make payments to the issuer of the debt to cover the principle they borrowed and the interest required by the debt covenant. This detriment is offset in some regard through the reduction in tax liability (Seidman, 2005) – in short, the payment of debt reduces the amount of income that the company is taxed upon. Equity financing carries with it its own distinct set of advantages and disadvantages. Chief among the advantages of equity financing is the existence of no repayment period of the capital used to expand the business (Seidman, 2005). Since the capital is raised through individuals or businesses buying a share of both the company and its future earnings, the rewards for providing the capital come through an expected increase in the value of their investment. This, however, translates into a disadvantage of equity financing. Namely, wh ile profits are expected to increase, the â€Å"pie† is now being divided into more pieces, thus reducing the value of the existing stakes. Further, with the issuance (or release) of additional stock into the market to support an equity financing endeavor, the company becomes more susceptible to outside influences, whether through potential takeovers or through some loss of control of the decision-making process (Seidman, 2005). I neither fully agree nor fully disagree with management’s decision to proceed with equity financing instead of the intended debt financing in the expansion of their manufacturing capabilities. Equity financing makes sense, especially in light of the 305% rise in the company’s stock price over the past year (American Superconductor, 2003). Management is able to take advantage of the ability to raise capital with less dilution of current stockholders’ shares than would otherwise be expected in an environment of stable share price. Debt financing, too, makes sense in regard to the fact that with the government project becoming profitable a quarter ahead of expectations and with the massive savings in operating expenses, debt financing would have been rather easy to service (American Superconductor, 2003). Using that approach, no dilution of stockholder value would be necessary and there would be no potential for a loss of corporate autonomy. Further, with an eye again to lower future operating costs and an unexpectedly profitable revenue stream, debt financing would have lowered the potential future tax burden that the company will soon be faced with. Instead of management undertaking either approach, I believe that a third option would be best. With the company’s results that lent themselves to support debt financing as well as a nearly doubling of revenue company-wide over the past year, management could have funded the entire endeavor through retained earnings had the expansion decision been put off for a short period of time (American Superconductor, 2003). This approach would prevent any dilution of share value, any potential loss of autonomy, and would avoid the seemingly unnecessary burden of additional indebtiture at a time when the company is flush with cash. Having made the decision to raise the capital through equity financing, management needs to determine what the cost of equity truly would

Researching a decay (1990's movies) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Researching a decay (1990's movies) - Essay Example As pointed out, the popular culture during 1990s was entirely different from the past decade because the unexpected end of Cold War, the collapse of Soviet Union and the collapse of Berlin wall deeply influence the political/cultural scenario of the world. To be specific, the wartime sentiment and nationalistic mood transformed into cultural amalgamation and acceptance. But Chris states that â€Å"The accelerating integration of information and entertainment media meant that movies and television shows had become news themselves† (139). The popular culture reflects the aspirations and feelings of the mass and acts as a safety valve which reflects the cultural characteristics of a society. Within this context, the popular culture during 1990s set itself free from political stance and transformed into multiculturalism. In short, popular culture during 1990s reflected the change in international politics and reflected the same within culture. The most important characteristic of movies during 1990s was hyperrealism. Within this context, the main characteristics of hyperrealism can be broadly classified into three: intervention, identity, and space and time. Hyperrealism in 1990s can be simply defined as the dilemma which leads to virtual real illusion. To be specific, the films in 1990s are interconnected with hyperrealism. Martin opines that â€Å"The use of terms such as ‘simulation’, virtual reality’ and ‘hyperrealism’ in the criticism of news media is often confused and imprecise† (141). The individual (say, the hero) who is able to experience hyperrealism can act the role of a channel between virtual and real worlds. This is the most important characteristic of hyperrealism, which influenced the scenario of cinema in 1990s. The other characteristics of hyperrealism in 1990s include: Within this context, the film The Matrix (1999) is one of the best examples of hyperrealism

Western philosophy Essay Example for Free

Western philosophy Essay Philosophy is the discipline concerned with questions of how one should live (ethics); what sorts of things exist and what are their essential natures (metaphysics); what counts as genuine knowledge (epistemology); and what are the correct principles of reasoning (logic). The word is of Ancient Greek origin (philosophia), meaning love of wisdom. Definition of philosophy: Every definition of philosophy is controversial. The field has historically expanded and changed depending upon what kinds of questions were interesting or relevant in a given era. It is generally agreed that philosophy is a method, rather than a set of claims, propositions, or theories. Its investigations are based upon rational thinking, striving to make no unexamined assumptions and no leaps based on faith or pure analogy. Different philosophers have had varied ideas about the nature of reason. There is also disagreement about the subject matter of philosophy. Some think that philosophy examines the process of inquiry itself. Others, that there are essentially philosophical propositions which it is the task of philosophy to answer. Although the word philosophy originates in Ancient Greece, many figures in the history of other cultures have addressed similar topics in similar ways. The philosophers of East and South Asia are discussed in Eastern philosophy, while the philosophers of North Africa and the Middle East, because of their strong interactions with Europe, are usually considered part of Western philosophy. Branches of philosophy: The point of philosophy is to start with something so simple as to seem not worth stating, and to end with something so paradoxical that no one will believe it. To give an exhaustive list of the main divisions of philosophy is difficult, because various topics have been studied by philosophers at various times. Ethics, metaphysics, epistemology, and logic are usually included. Other topics include politics, aesthetics, and religion. In addition, most academic subjects have a philosophy, for example the philosophy of science, the philosophy of mathematics, and the philosophy of history. Metaphysics was first studied systematically by Aristotle. He did not use that term; the term emerged because in later editions of Aristotles works the book on what is now called metaphysics came after Aristotles study of physics. He calls the subject first philosophy (or sometimes just wisdom), and says it is the subject that deals with first causes and the principles of things. The modern meaning of the term is any inquiry dealing with the ultimate nature of what exists. Epistemology is concerned with the nature and scope of knowledge, and whether knowledge is possible. Ethics, or moral philosophy, is concerned with questions of how agents ought to act. Platos early dialogues constitute a search for definitions of virtue. Metaethics is the study of whether ethical value judgments can be objective at all. Ethics can also be conducted within a religious context. Logic has two broad divisions: mathematical logic (formal symbolic logic) and what is now called philosophical logic, the logic of language. Greek philosophy and Hellenistic philosophy: Ancient Greek philosophy may be divided into the pre-Socratic period, the Socratic period, and the post-Aristotelian period (or Hellenistic period). The pre-Socratic period was characterized by metaphysical speculation, often preserved in the form of grand, sweeping statements, such as All is fire or All changes. Important pre-Socratic philosophers include Pythagoras, Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes, Democritus, Parmenides, Heraclitus, and Empedocles. The Socratic period is named in honor of Socrates, who, along with his pupil Plato, revolutionized philosophy through the use of the Socratic method, which developed the very general philosophical methods of definition, analysis, and synthesis. While no writings of Socrates survive, his influence as a skeptic is transmitted through Platos works. Platos writings are often considered basic texts in philosophy as they defined the fundamental issues of philosophy for future generations. These issues and others were taken up by Aristotle, who studied at Platos school, the Academy, and who often disagreed with what Plato had written. The subsequent period ushered in such philosophers as Euclid, Epicurus, Chrysippus, Hipparchia the Cynic, Pyrrho, and Sextus Empiricus. Though many of these philosophers may seem irrelevant given current scientific knowledge, their systems of thought continue to influence both philosophy and science today. Medieval philosophy History: Medieval philosophy is the philosophy of Western Europe and the Middle East during what is now known as the medieval era or the Middle Ages, roughly extending from the fall of the Roman Empire to the Renaissance period. Medieval philosophy is defined partly by the rediscovery and further development of classical Greek philosophy and Hellenistic philosophy, and partly by the need to address theological problems and to integrate sacred doctrine (in Islam, Judaism and Christianity) and secular learning. Some problems discussed throughout this period are the relation of faith to reason, the existence and unity of God, the object of theology and metaphysics, the problems of knowledge, of universals, and of individuation. Philosophers from the Middle Ages include the Muslim philosophers Alkindus, Alfarabi, Alhacen, Avicenna, Algazel, Avempace, Abubacer and Averroes; the Jewish philosophers Maimonides and Gersonides; and the Christian philosophers Anselm, Peter Abelard, Roger Bacon, Thomas Aquinas, Duns Scotus, William of Ockham and Jean Buridan. Early modern philosophy History(c. 1600 c. 1800): Modern philosophy is usually considered to begin with the revival of skepticism and the genesis of modern physical science. Canonical figures include Montaigne, Descartes, Locke, Spinoza, Leibniz, Berkeley, Hume, and Kant. Chronologically, this era spans the 17th and 18th centuries, and is generally considered to end with Kants systematic attempt to reconcile Newtonian physics with traditional metaphysical topics. Later modern philosophy History(c. 1800 c. 1960): Later modern philosophy is usually considered to begin after the philosophy of Immanuel Kant at the beginning of the 19th-century. German idealists, Fichte, Hegel, Hoelderlin, Schelling, expanded on the work of Kant by maintaining that the world is rational and it is knowable as rational. Rejecting idealism, other philosophers, many working from outside the university, initiated lines of thought that would occupy academic philosophy in the early and mid-20th century: Contemporary philosophy History(c. 1960 present): In the last hundred years, philosophy has increasingly become an activity practiced within the modern research university, and accordingly it has grown more specialized and more distinct from the natural sciences. Much of philosophy in this period concerns itself with explaining the relation between the theories of the natural sciences and the ideas of the humanities or common sense. It is arguable that later modern philosophy ended with contemporary philosophys shift of focus from 19th century philosophers to 20th century philosophers. Realism and nominalism in Philosophy: Realism sometimes means the position opposed to the 18th-century Idealism, namely that some things have real existence outside the mind. Classically, however, realism is the doctrine that abstract entities corresponding to universal terms like man have a real existence. It is opposed to nominalism, the view that abstract or universal terms are words only, or denote mental states such as ideas, beliefs, or intentions. The latter position, famously held by William of Ockham, is conceptualism. Rationalism and empiricism in Philosophy: Rationalism is any view emphasizing the role or importance of human reason. Extreme rationalism tries to base all knowledge on reason alone. Rationalism typically starts from premises that cannot coherently be denied, then attempts by logical steps to deduce every possible object of knowledge. The first rationalist, in this broad sense, is often held to be Parmenides (fl. 480 BCE), who argued that it is impossible to doubt that thinking actually occurs. But thinking must have an object, therefore something beyond thinking really exists. Parmenides deduced that what really exists must have certain properties for example, that it cannot come into existence or cease to exist, that it is a coherent whole, that it remains the same eternally (in fact, exists altogether outside time). Zeno of Elea (born c. 489 BCE) was a disciple of Parmenides, and argued that motion is impossible, since the assertion that it exists implies a contradiction. Plato (427-347 BCE) was also influenced by Parmenides, but combined rationalism with a form of realism. The philosophers work is to consider being, and the essence of things. But the characteristic of essences is that they are universal. The nature of a man, a triangle, a tree, applies to all men, all triangles, all trees. Plato argued that these essences are mind-independent forms, that humans (but particularly philosophers) can come to know by reason, and by ignoring the distractions of sense-perception. Modern rationalism begins with Descartes. Reflection on the nature of perceptual experience, as well as scientific discoveries in physiology and optics, led Descartes (and also Locke) to the view that we are directly aware of ideas, rather than objects. This view gave rise to three questions: Is an idea a true copy of the real thing that it represents? Sensation is not a direct interaction between bodily objects and our sense, but is a physiological process involving representation (for example, an image on the retina). Locke thought that a secondary quality such as a sensation of green could in no way resemble the arrangement of particles in matter that go to produce this sensation, although he thought that primary qualities such as shape, size, number, were really in objects. How can physical objects such as chairs and tables, or even physiological processes in the brain, give rise to mental items such as ideas? This is part of what became known as the mind-body problem. If all the contents of awareness are ideas, how can we know that anything exists apart from ideas? Descartes tried to address the last problem by reason. He began, echoing Parmenides, with a principle that he thought could not coherently be denied: I think, therefore I am (often given in his original Latin: Cogito ergo sum). From this principle, Descartes went on to construct a complete system of knowledge (which involves proving the existence of God, using, among other means, a version of the ontological argument). His view that reason alone could yield substantial truths about reality strongly influenced those philosophers usually considered modern rationalists (such as Baruch Spinoza, Gottfried Leibniz, and Christian Wolff), while provoking criticism from other philosophers who have retrospectively come to be grouped together as empiricists. Empiricism, in contrast to rationalism, downplays or dismisses the ability of reason alone to yield knowledge of the world, preferring to base any knowledge we have on our senses. John Locke propounded the classic empiricist view in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding in 1689, developing a form of naturalism and empiricism on roughly scientific (and Newtonian) principles. During this era, religious ideas played a mixed role in the struggles that preoccupied secular philosophy. Bishop Berkeleys famous idealist refutation of key tenets of Isaac Newton is a case of an Enlightenment philosopher who drew substantially from religious ideas. Other influential religious thinkers of the time include Blaise Pascal, Joseph Butler, and Jonathan Edwards. Other major writers, such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Edmund Burke, took a rather different path. The restricted interests of many of the philosophers of the time foreshadow the separation and specialization of different areas of philosophy that would occur in the 20th century. Skepticism in Philosophy: Skepticism is a philosophical attitude that questions the possibility of obtaining any sort of knowledge. It was first articulated by Pyrrho, who believed that everything could be doubted except appearances. Sextus Empiricus (2nd century CE) describes skepticism as an ability to place in antithesis, in any manner whatever, appearances and judgments, and thus to come first of all to a suspension of judgment and then to mental tranquility. Skepticism so conceived is not merely the use of doubt, but is the use of doubt for a particular end: a calmness of the soul, or ataraxia. Skepticism poses itself as a challenge to dogmatism, whose adherents think they have found the truth. Sextus noted that the reliability of perception may be questioned, because it is idiosyncratic to the perceiver. The appearance of individual things changes depending on whether they are in a group: for example, the shavings of a goats horn are white when taken alone, yet the intact horn is black. A pencil, when viewed lengthwise, looks like a stick; but when examined at the tip, it looks merely like a circle. Skepticism was revived in the early modern period by Michel de Montaigne and Blaise Pascal. Its most extreme exponent, however, was David Hume. Hume argued that there are only two kinds of reasoning: what he called probable and demonstrative (cf Humes fork). Neither of these two forms of reasoning can lead us to a reasonable belief in the continued existence of an external world. Demonstrative reasoning cannot do this, because demonstration (that is, deductive reasoning from well-founded premises) alone cannot establish the uniformity of nature (as captured by scientific laws and principles, for example). Such reason alone cannot establish that the future will resemble the past. We have certain beliefs about the world (that the sun will rise tomorrow, for example), but these beliefs are the product of habit and custom, and do not depend on any sort of logical inferences from what is already given certain. But probable reasoning (inductive reasoning), which aims to take us from the observed to the unobserved, cannot do this either: it also depends on the uniformity of nature, and this supposed uniformity cannot be proved, without circularity, by any appeal to uniformity. The best that either sort of reasoning can accomplish is conditional truth: if certain assumptions are true, then certain conclusions follow. So nothing about the world can be established with certainty. Hume concludes that there is no solution to the skeptical argument except, in effect, to ignore it. Even if these matters were resolved in every case, we would have in turn to justify our standard of justification, leading to an infinite regress (hence the term regress skepticism). Many philosophers have questioned the value of such skeptical arguments. The question of whether we can achieve knowledge of the external world is based on how high a standard we set for the justification of such knowledge. If our standard is absolute certainty, then we cannot progress beyond the existence of mental sensations. We cannot even deduce the existence of a coherent or continuing I that experiences these sensations, much less the existence of an external world. On the other hand, if our standard is too low, then we admit follies and illusions into our body of knowledge. This argument against absolute skepticism asserts that the practical philosopher must move beyond solipsism, and accept a standard for knowledge that is high but not absolute. Idealism in Philosophy: Idealism is the epistemological doctrine that nothing can be directly known outside of the minds of thinking beings. Or in an alternative stronger form, it is the metaphysical doctrine that nothing exists apart from minds and the contents of minds. In modern Western philosophy, the epistemological doctrine begins as a core tenet of Descartes that what is in the mind is known more reliably than what is known through the senses. The first prominent modern Western idealist in the metaphysical sense was George Berkeley. Berkeley argued that there is no deep distinction between mental states, such as feeling pain, and the ideas about so-called external things, that appear to us through the senses. There is no real distinction, in this view, between certain sensations of heat and light that we experience, which lead us to believe in the external existence of a fire, and the fire itself. Those sensations are all there is to fire. Berkeley expressed this with the Latin formula esse est percipi: to be is to be perceived. In this view the opinion, strangely prevailing upon men, that houses, mountains, and rivers have an existence independent of their perception by a thinking being is false. Forms of idealism were prevalent in philosophy from the 18th century to the early 20th century. Transcendental idealism, advocated by Immanuel Kant, is the view that there are limits on what can be understood, since there is much that cannot be brought under the conditions of objective judgment. Kant wrote his Critique of Pure Reason (1781-1787) in an attempt to reconcile the conflicting approaches of rationalism and empiricism, and to establish a new groundwork for studying metaphysics. Kants intention with this work was to look at what we know and then consider what must be true about it, as a logical consequence of, the way we know it. One major theme was that there are fundamental features of reality that escape our direct knowledge because of the natural limits of the human faculties. Although Kant held that objective knowledge of the world required the mind to impose a conceptual or categorical framework on the stream of pure sensory data a framework including space and time themselves he maintained that things-in-themselves existed independently of  our perceptions and judgments; he was therefore not an idealist in any simple sense. Indeed, Kants account of things-in-themselves is both controversial and highly complex. Continuing his work, Johann Gottlieb Fichte and Friedrich Schelling dispensed with belief in the independent existence of the world, and created a thoroughgoing idealist philosophy. The most notable work of this German idealism was G. W. F. Hegels Phenomenology of Spirit, of 1807. Hegel admitted his ideas werent new, but that all the previous philosophies had been incomplete. His goal was to correctly finish their job. Hegel asserts that the twin aims of philosophy are to account for the contradictions apparent in human experience (which arise, for instance, out of the supposed contradictions between being and not being ), and also simultaneously to resolve and preserve these contradictions by showing their compatibility at a higher level of examination (being and not being are resolved with becoming) . This program of acceptance and reconciliation of contradictions is known as the Hegelian dialectic. Philosophers in the Hegelian tradition include Ludwig Andreas Feuerbach, who coined the term projection as pertaining to our inability to recognize anything in the external world without projecting qualities of ourselves upon those things, Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels, and the British idealists, notably T. H. Green, J. M. E. McTaggart, and F. H. Bradley. Few 20th century philosophers have embraced idealism. However, quite a few have embraced Hegelian dialectic. Immanuel Kants Copernican Turn also remains an important philosophical concept today. Pragmatism in Philosophy: Pragmatism was founded in the spirit of finding a scientific concept of truth, which is not dependent on either personal insight (or revelation) or reference to some metaphysical realm. The truth of a statement should be judged by the effect it has on our actions and truth should be seen as that which the whole of scientific enquiry will ultimately agree on. This should probably be seen as a guiding principle more than a definition of what it means for something to be true, though the details of how this principle should be interpreted have been subject to discussion since Peirce first conceived it. Like Rorty many seem convinced that Pragmatism holds that the truth of beliefs does not consist in their correspondence with reality, but in their usefulness and efficacy. The late 19th-century American philosophers Charles Peirce and William James were its co-founders, and it was later developed by John Dewey as instrumentalism. Since the usefulness of any belief at any time might be contingent on circumstance, Peirce and James conceptualised final truth as that which would be established only by the future, final settlement of all opinion. Critics have accused pragmatism of falling victim to a simple fallacy: because something that is true proves useful, that usefulness is the basis for its truth. Thinkers in the pragmatist tradition have included John Dewey, George Santayana,W. V. O. Quine and C. I. Lewis. Phenomenology in Philosophy: Edmund Husserls phenomenology was an ambitious attempt to lay the foundations for an account of the structure of conscious experience in general. An important part of Husserls phenomenological project was to show that all conscious acts are directed at or about objective content, a feature that Husserl called intentionality. In the first part of his two-volume work, the Logical Investigations (1901), he launched an extended attack on psychologism. In the second part, he began to develop the technique of descriptive phenomenology, with the aim of showing how objective judgments are indeed grounded in conscious experience not, however, in the first-person experience of particular individuals, but in the properties essential to any experiences of the kind in question. He also attempted to identify the essential properties of any act of meaning. He developed the method further in Ideas (1913) as transcendental phenomenology, proposing to ground actual experience, and thus all fields of human knowledge, in the structure of consciousness of an ideal, or transcendental, ego. Later, he attempted to reconcile his transcendental standpoint with an acknowledgement of the intersubjective life-world in which real individual subjects interact. Husserl published only a few works in his lifetime, which treat phenomenology mainly in abstract methodological terms; but he left an enormous quantity of unpublished concrete analyses. Husserls work was immediately influential in Germany, with the foundation of phenomenological schools in Munich and Gottingen. Phenomenology later achieved international fame through the work of such philosophers as Martin Heidegger (formerly Husserls research assistant), Maurice Merleau-Ponty, and Jean-Paul Sartre. Indeed, through the work of Heidegger and Sartre, Husserls focus on subjective experience influenced aspects of existentialism. Existentialism in Philosophy: Although they didnt use the term, the nineteenth century philosophers Soren Kierkegaard and Friedrich Nietzsche are widely regarded as the fathers of existentialism. Their influence, however, has extended beyond existentialist thought. The main target of Kierkegaards writings was the idealist philosophical system of Hegel which, he thought, ignored or excluded the inner subjective life of living human beings. Kierkegaard, conversely, held that truth is subjectivity, arguing that what is most important to an actual human being are questions dealing with an individuals inner relationship to existence. In particular, Kierkegaard, a Christian, believed that the truth of religious faith was a subjective question, and one to be wrestled with passionately. Although Kierkegaard and Nietzsche were among his influences, the extent to which the German philosopher Martin Heidegger should be considered an existentialist is debatable. In Being and Time he presented a method of rooting philosophical explanations in human existence (Dasein) to be analysed in terms of existential categories (existentiale); and this has led many commentators to treat him as an important figure in the existentialist movement. However, in The Letter on Humanism, Heidegger explicitly rejected the existentialism of Jean-Paul Sartre. Sartre became the best-known proponent of existentialism, exploring it not only in theoretical works such as Being and Nothingness , but also in plays and novels. Sartre, along with Albert Camus and Simone de Beauvoir, all represented an avowedly atheistic branch of existentialism, which is now more closely associated with their ideas of nausea, contingency, bad faith, and the absurd than with Kierkegaards spiritual angst. Nevertheless, the focus on the individual human being, responsible before the universe for the authenticity of his or her existence, is common to all these thinkers. Structuralism and post-structuralism in Philosophy: Inaugurated by the linguist Ferdinand de Saussure, structuralism sought to ferret out the underlying systems through analysing the discourses they both limit and make possible. Saussure conceived of the sign as being delimited by all the other signs in the system, and ideas as being incapable of existence prior to linguistic structure, which articulates thought. This led continental thought away from humanism, and toward what was termed the decentering of man: language is no longer spoken by man to express a true inner self, but language speaks man. Structuralism sought the province of a hard science, but its positivism soon came under fire by poststructuralism, a wide field of thinkers, some of whom were once themselves structuralists, but later came to criticize it. Structuralists believed they could analyse systems from an external, objective standing, for example, but the poststructuralists argued that this is incorrect, that one cannot transcend structures and thus analysis is itself determined by what it examines, that systems are ultimately self-referential. Furthermore, while the distinction between the signifier and signified was treated as crystalline by structuralists, poststructuralists asserted that every attempt to grasp the signified would simply result in the proliferation of more signifiers, so meaning is always in a state of being deferred, making an ultimate interpretation impossible. Structuralism came to dominate continental philosophy from the 1960s onward, encompassing thinkers as diverse as Michel Foucault and Jacques Lacan. The analytic tradition in Philosophy: The term analytic philosophy roughly designates a group of philosophical methods that stress clarity of meaning above all other criteria. The philosophy developed as a critique of Hegel and his followers in particular, and of speculative philosophy in general. Some schools in the group include 20th-century realism, logical atomism, logical positivism, and ordinary language. The motivation is to have philosophical studies go beyond personal opinion and begin to have the cogency of mathematical proofs. In 1921, Ludwig Wittgenstein published his Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, which gave a rigidly logical account of linguistic and philosophical issues. At the time, he understood most of the problems of philosophy as mere puzzles of language, which could be solved by clear thought. Years later he would reverse a number of the positions he had set out in the Tractatus, in for example his second major work, Philosophical Investigations (1953). Investigations encouraged the development of ordinary language philosophy, which was promoted by Gilbert Ryle, J.L. Austin, and a few others. The ordinary language philosophy thinkers shared a common outlook with many older philosophers (Jeremy Bentham, Ralph Waldo Emerson, and John Stuart Mill), and it was this style of philosophical inquiry that characterized English-language philosophy for the second half of the 20th century. Ethics and political in Philosophy: From ancient times, and well beyond them, the roots of justification for political authority were inescapably tied to outlooks on human nature. In The Republic, Plato declared that the ideal society would be run by a council of philosopher-kings, since those best at philosophy are best able to realize the good. Even Plato, however, required philosophers to make their way in the world for many years before beginning their rule at the age of fifty. For Aristotle, humans are political animals (i. e. social animals), and governments are set up in order to pursue good for the community. Aristotle reasoned that, since the state (polis) was the highest form of community, it has the purpose of pursuing the highest good. Aristotle viewed political power as the result of natural inequalities in skill and virtue. Because of these differences, he favored an aristocracy of the able and virtuous. For Aristotle, the person cannot be complete unless he or she lives in a community. His The Nicomachean Ethics and The Politics are meant to be read in that order. The first book addresses virtues (or excellences) in the person as a citizen; the second addresses the proper form of government to ensure that citizens will be virtuous, and therefore complete. Both books deal with the essential role of justice in civic life. Nicolas of Cusa rekindled Platonic thought in the early 15th century. He promoted democracy in Medieval Europe, both in his writings and in his organization of the Council of Florence. Unlike Aristotle and the Hobbesian tradition to follow, Cusa saw human beings as equal and divine (that is, made in Gods image), so democracy would be the only just form of government. Cusas views are credited by some as sparking the Italian Renaissance, which gave rise to the notion of Nation-States. Later, Niccolo Machiavelli rejected the views of Aristotle and Thomas Aquinas as unrealistic. The ideal sovereign is not the embodiment of the moral virtues; rather the sovereign does whatever is successful and necessary, rather than what is morally praiseworthy. Thomas Hobbes also contested many elements of Aristotles views. For Hobbes, human nature is essentially anti-social: people are essentially egoistic, and this egoism makes life difficult in the natural state of things. Moreover, Hobbes argued, though people may have natural inequalities, these are trivial, since no particular talents or virtues that people may have will make them safe from harm inflicted by others. For these reasons, Hobbes concluded that the state arises from a common agreement to raise the community out of the state of nature. This can only be done by the establishment of a sovereign, in which (or whom) is vested complete control over the community, and which is able to inspire awe and terror in its subjects. Many in the Enlightenment were unsatisfied with existing doctrines in political philosophy, which seemed to marginalize or neglect the possibility of a democratic state. David Hume was among the first philosophers to question the existence of God, circa 1700. Jean-Jacques Rousseau was among those who attempted to overturn these doctrines: he responded to Hobbes by claiming that a human is by nature a kind of noble savage, and that society and social contracts corrupt this nature. Another critic was John Locke. In Second Treatise on Government he agreed with Hobbes that the nation-state was an efficient tool for raising humanity out of a deplorable state, but he argued that the sovereign might become an abominable institution compared to the relatively benign unmodulated state of nature. Following the doctrine of the fact-value distinction, due in part to the influence of David Hume and his student Adam Smith, appeals to human nature for political justification were weakened. Nevertheless, many political philosophers, especially moral realists, still make use of some essential human nature as a basis for their arguments. Consequentialism, Deontological ethics, and Virtue ethics in Philosophy: One debate that has commanded the attention of ethicists in the modern era has been between consequentialism (actions are to be morally evaluated solely by their consequences) and deontology (actions are to be morally evaluated solely by consideration of agents duties, the rights of those whom the action concerns, or both).